You're Not the Center of the Universe, You Know

My Op-Ed published in the Washington Post, July 19, 2009

Walk into an open field on a clear, moonless night. Overhead, sparkling stars sprinkle the sky. All of them seem equidistant from you―and no one else―and you are lulled into imagining yourself at the center of the universe.

For nearly 500 years, astronomers have struggled to break that illusion. Our petty standing in the cosmos is a scientific fact, if not a visceral experience. Earth zips at nearly 67,000 miles an hour around the sun, which in turn completes one lap around the Milky Way every 220 million years, meaning that the last time we were in this neck of the galaxy, dinosaurs were getting ready to rule the planet. Still, as you look skyward in that pitch-black field, Earth seems to be at the heart of all creation.

We could blame Aristotle. So authoritative was his pronouncement of an Earth-centered universe in the 4th century B.C. that few challenged the idea for nearly two millennia. Over time, the urge to better explain the universe's behavior gave rise to new models. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus boldly placed the sun at the center of the universe, shoving the Earth into motion. The radiant sun was at last in its proper perch, "as if resting on a kingly throne," he wrote.

Copernicus was not disturbed at all by a moving Earth but was troubled by a rotating sky. The Polish mathematician and astronomer, though, knew quite well the consequences of challenging conventional notions. In the preface to his great work, "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres," he predicted that "as soon as certain people learn that in these books of mine . . . I attribute certain motions to the terrestrial globe, they will immediately shout to have me and my opinion hooted off the stage."

That fate fell upon Galileo, who starting in 1609 gathered the crucial evidence supporting Copernicus's heliocentric vision. In 1633 he was brought before the Inquisition and eventually put under house arrest for daring to oppose an Earth relaxing at the universe's center.

By the time of Newton, decades later, such hostility had faded. For one, Sir Isaac's physics could at last explain why we aren't thrown off the planet as the Earth rotates and orbits the sun. But even though Copernicus moved Earth from the hub of the solar system, its inhabitants remained confident that they retained a privileged place at the center of the Milky Way, the sole galaxy. Homo sapiens is an egotistical species; we resist being kicked out of a prime spot in the cosmic scheme of things.

That confidence, though, withered as astronomy underwent a spectacular transformation starting in the 19th century, an era teeming with technological innovation. Prominent industrialists, enriched by the Gilded Age, provided the money that allowed dreamers to construct the powerful telescopes they had long desired.

With one of those new instruments atop California's Mount Wilson, Harlow Shapley resized the Milky Way. He discovered in 1918 that it was 10 times larger than previously thought and, along the way, he relocated the sun and its planets into the galaxy's suburbs. The sun resides roughly 30,000 light-years from the galactic center, more than halfway to the Milky Way's edge. "The solar system is off center, and consequently, man is too," Shapley liked to say.

But Shapley did not take the next step; he, too, fell victim to cosmic pride. Despite the growing evidence that the Milky Way was not alone in the universe, he held fast to his beloved Big Galaxy model: Our galaxy remained at center stage. We lived in a solitary, star-filled oasis suspended in a darkness of unknown depth.

Shapley's vision was demolished in 1924, when Edwin Hubble proved that the cosmos is populated with myriad galaxies as far as the telescopic eye can see. The Milky Way suddenly became a bit player in a much larger drama.

The history of astronomy is a continuing extension of the Copernican principle, moving us farther and farther from the front row. It's a principle of irrelevance that involves not only our position in space and time but also the contents of the universe. In recent decades, astronomers have learned that a hidden ocean of cosmic matter―comprising about 85 percent of the universe's mass―surrounds us, possibly elementary particles yet to be discovered. The stuff of stars, planets and us is but the flotsam in this enveloping sea.

More startling―and taking the Copernican principle to its finale―our universe may not be the only one. As physicists attempt to construct a theory that unifies all the forces of nature, one theme repeatedly arises: that additional cosmic realms may be lurking in other dimensions. We could be part of the multiverse; the Big Bang might have occurred when universes outside our dimensional borders bumped into one another.

The main response to this astounding theory has been to bury our heads in terra firma. Yet such a wider perspective offers some succor, allowing our earthly concerns to shed away. Hubble knew this. During a visit to the astronomer's home, the English poet Edith Sitwell was shown slides depicting the many galaxies that cannot be seen with the naked eye. "How terrifying!" she exclaimed. To which Hubble replied: "Only at first―when you are not used to them. Afterwards, they give one comfort. For then you know that there is nothing to worry about―nothing at all."

Granted, the hugeness of the cosmos is difficult to perceive and, as Sitwell expressed, horrifying to ponder. A character in Thomas Hardy's 19th century novel "Two on a Tower" gives splendid voice to this apprehension: "There is a size at which dignity begins; further on there is a size at which grandeur begins; . . . further on, a size at which ghastliness begins," says astronomer Swithin St. Cleeve. "That size faintly approaches the size of the stellar universe."

Indeed, our cosmic address is getting excruciatingly long: Planet No. 3, Solar System, Orion Spur on the Sagittarius Spiral Arm, Milky Way, Local Cluster, Virgo Supercluster, Universe, Multiverse.

It's time for earthlings to acknowledge our minor-league status and collectively grasp the magnificent vastness that engulfs us all. While a widespread recognition of Earth's humble station is unlikely to end conflict here, fully comprehending our planet's infinitesimal place in the universe might be a modest step toward diminishing our hubris. Earth is but a speck, the cosmic equivalent of a subatomic particle hovering within an immensity spanning billions of light-years.

And we can still savor our cleverness in figuring this out.

Image Credits: (top) Sagittarius Star Cloud (Hubble Heritage); (lower) Imagined Multiverse (Nature)

Hubble Redux

History can often be lazy. Not historians. They go after details with a vengeance. But over time we tend to remember historic tales in easy bites. Take Edwin Hubble, for example, namesake of the popular space telescope newly refurbished by the space shuttle astronauts. It's often related that Hubble went to the world's largest and best-equipped telescope in 1923—the 100-inch reflector atop Mount Wilson in California—and, voila, revealed a cosmos populated with myriad galaxies spread over space as far as the young astronomer could peer. But that is not the case at all.

In reality, Hubble's discoveries did not arrive in one eureka moment, but only after years of contentious debates over conjectures and measurements that were fiercely disputed. That was one reason for my interest in delving more deeply into this story, a rich saga published in my latest book The Day We Found the Universe. It shows how the avenue of science is more often filled with twists, turns, and detours than unobstructed straightaways.

Here are some surprises to be found within the book's pages:

• Hubble didn’t really discover the expanding universe: The first person to observe that galaxies were racing away from us was Vesto Slipher at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona, an astronomer now largely forgotten. He first noticed the effect in 1913, sixteen years before Hubble’s historic observations. Slipher didn’t know at the time it was due to a universe expanding, but he did suggest the galaxies might be “scattering” in some way.
• Hubble was a scientific cad: In 1929 Hubble pegged how the galaxies move outward but failed to note in his famous paper that half his data—the velocities—were Vesto Slipher’s measurements. There was no citation, no acknowledgment—a serious breach of scientific protocol. Slipher deserves half the credit. Privately, Slipher was bitter but too humble and reserved to demand his share of the glory.
• The so-called “discoverer” of the expanding universe never liked the idea: For the rest of his life, Hubble had serious doubts about a universe expanding. He told a Los Angeles Times reporter, “It is difficult to believe that the velocities are real—that all matter is actually scattering away from our region of space.” In his scientific papers, he always referred to the galaxies’ “apparent” velocities, worried that a new law of physics might sneak in and change the interpretation.
• A woman made the discovery of the modern universe possible: Henrietta Leavitt, working at the Harvard College Observatory, came upon astronomy’s celestial Rosetta Stone in 1912, which allowed Edwin Hubble twelve years later to prove that the Milky Way was not alone but just one of a multitude of galaxies. She found a new cosmic yardstick, based on blinking stars called Cepheid variables, to determine distances to far-off celestial objects, a task that was formerly impossible to carry out. She might have earned a Nobel prize for this work, if she had not died of stomach cancer at the age of 53.
• Edwin Hubble was not much liked by his colleagues: Hubble, often arrogant and standoffish, rarely hung out with his fellow astronomers. One called him a “stuffed shirt.” Hubble preferred to socialize with the actors and writers in nearby Hollywood, the aristocrats of southern California. While a Rhodes scholar at Oxford University, he completely reinvented himself: he adopted a British accent that he maintained for the rest of his life, dressed like a dandy, and began to add dubious credentials to his résumé (like saying he once practiced law, which he never did). Hubble’s affectation for wearing jodhpurs, leather puttees, and a beret while observing, or going around and saying “Bah Jove,” was simply too much for the other astronomers to bear.
• Not Hubble, not Einstein, but a Belgian priest first discovered how the cosmos truly operates: Both a theorist and a Jesuit priest, Georges Lemaître predicted in 1927—two years before Hubble measured it—that space-time was moving outward, with the galaxies going along for the ride. Here was the reason for Slipher's fleeing galaxies. Lemaître even estimated a rate of expansion close to the one that Hubble would later calculate. Since the young priest published this astonishing news in an obscure journal, no one noticed—no one at all.
• The Hubble Space Telescope could have had another name: Three men had a good chance at proving the universe was filled with other galaxies, beyond the borders of the Milky Way, years before Hubble. Each had the opportunity and the expertise. But James Keeler at the Lick Observatory prematurely died in 1900 at the age of 42; Heber Curtis, also at Lick, took a promotion, taking himself out of the race; and Harvard astronomer Harlow Shapley was mulishly wedded to a flawed vision of the cosmos, a blunder he regretted for the rest of his life.

Above photos, from top to bottom: (1) Edwin Hubble; (2) Vesto Slipher; (3) Henrietta Leavitt; (4) Georges Lemaître